The considerable potency of nucleic acids as triggers of the innate immune response has become clear over the last few years. It has been known for over a decade that DNA, the most recognizable unit of life elicits a robust inflammatory response in cells. The discovery of Toll‑Like...

The infections caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) rank as two of the most important public health problems worldwide. Hundreds of millions of people are infected with either HIV or HCV, and co‑infection with both viruses represents a growing concern that...

It is crucial that signaling pathways such as those induced by Toll‑like receptors (TLR) are tightly regulated. This is to prevent over‑production of pro‑inflammatory mediators that would cause more harm than the good originally intended for the host. Classic mechanisms of regulation...

Autophagy is an evolutionary ancient pathway by which cells maintain cell‑autonomous homeostasis by removing intracellular material through lysosomal degradation. In addition to its homeostatic function, autophagy is also utilized by infected cells to remove intracellular pathogens, and...

The host responds to virus infection by triggering various antiviral defense mechanisms, many of which are initiated by double‑stranded (ds) RNA, which is often produced in virus‑infected cells. Surprisingly, similar responses are also triggered by cellular dsRNA produced by necrotic, or...

The innate immune system employs a limited number of germ line‑encoded pattern recognition receptors (PRR) that sense molecular patterns such as microbial molecules and unphysiological concentrations or structures of self molecules. Sensing of molecular patterns leads to cell autonomous...

Our understanding of innate immunity has expanded rapidly since the discovery in 1996 of Toll as a cellular receptor in fruit flies that recognizes invading pathogens. Of the Toll‑like receptors (TLRs) that have since been identified, mouse and human TLR3, TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9 recognize...

RNA virus infection is recognized in the cell cytoplasm by retinoic acid‑inducible gene (RIG)‑I‑like receptors (RLRs), comprised of RIG‑I, melanoma differentiation‑associated gene 5 (MDA5) and LGP2. RLRs are comprised of a DExD/H‑box helicase domain and a C‑terminal domain (CTD)....

The interferons (IFNs), a group of cytokines that induce the innate immune response and stimulate the adaptive immune response, pose a formidable barrier for viral replication in the host. In response, many viruses have evolved strategies to inhibit the induction and action of IFNs....

Like all living organisms, invertebrates are constantly exposed to viruses and have evolved efficient antiviral defense mechanisms. We review here our current understanding on antiviral host‑defense in invertebrates. Some invertebrate antiviral host‑defense strategies such as apoptosis and...

Collectively, the mammalian Toll‑like receptors (TLRs) sense host invasion by most microbes, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. They do so by recognizing signature molecules that herald infection: lipopeptides, lipopolysaccharides, flagellin, dsRNA, ssRNA and ssDNA. When such...

RIG‑I‑like receptors (RLRs) are DExD/H box RNA helicases that play an essential role in antiviral innate immunity. RLRs sense viral infection by recognizing the non‑self structure of viral RNA in the cytoplasm and then trigger antiviral interferon (IFN) responses to eliminate invading...

The mitochondrion provides a coordinating platform to anchor and compartmentalize distinct and interactive protein complexes to sustain basic life functions. These include bioenergetics, reactive oxygen species regulation, autophagy, apoptosis and type 1 interferon innate immune response. A...

Currently used antiviral agents act by inhibiting viral entry, replication, or release of viral progeny. However, recent emergence of drug‑resistant viruses has become a major public health concern as it is limiting our ability to prevent and treat viral diseases. Furthermore, very few...

Vertebrates possess a highly sophisticated sensing machinery to detect RNA viruses, including influenza A viruses, resulting in induction of interferon and antiviral responses. However, influenza A viruses, similar to other viruses, have acquired inhibitory activities of the sensing and...