In this chapter we review work on neurotrophic factors for midbrain dopaminergic neurons mainly from the past decade, with a focus on neurotrophins and fibroblast growth factors. We summarize data obtained from animal models of Parkinson’s disease, review analyses of neurotrophin, neurotrophin...

The brain contains a number of distinct regions that share expression of dopamine (DA) and its requisite biosynthetic machinery, but otherwise encompass a diverse array of features and functions. Across the vertebrate family, the olfactory bulb (OB) contains the major DA system in the forebrain....

Transforming growth factor betas (TGF‑βs) are multifunctional cytokines with widespread distribution. In the nervous system the biological effects of TGF‑β cover regulation of proliferation, migration, differentiation, survival and death. Specifically, the effects of TGF‑β on...

Dopaminergic neurons develop in several distinct regions of the vertebrate brain and project locally or send long axonal projections to distant parts of the CNS to modulate the activity of a variety of circuits, controlling aspects of physiology, behavior and movement. The molecular control of...

Embryonic stem (ES) cells can generate midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neuronal phenotypes in vitro and have been successfully applied to restore function in animal models of Parkinson’s disease (PD). How can we best integrate our growing insight into the regulatory cascade of transcription factors...

The mesencephalic dopaminergic (mesDA) neurons play a relevant role in the control of movement, behaviour and cognition. Indeed loss and/or abnormal development of mesDA neurons is responsible for Parkinson’s disease as well as for addictive and psychiatric disorders. A wealth of information...

Meso‑diencephalic dopamine neurons (mdDA) neurons are located in the retrorubral field (RRF), substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) and give rise to prominent ascending axon projections. These so‑called mesotelencephalic projections are organized into three...

The mammalian Engrailed genes were originally cloned by their sequence homology to the Drosophila engrailed. Orthologous genes of these homeobox transcription factors are found throughout the animal kingdom including all investigated vertebrate species. They take part in regionalization of the...

The orphan nuclear hormone receptor Nurr1 and the homeobox Pitx3 were the first two transcription factors that were implicated in the development of mesodiencephalic dopaminergic (mdDA) neurons.1,2 These factors have their own expression profile in the brain: Nurr1 is expressed in many forebrain...

Midbrain dopaminergic neurons (mDA), comprising the substantia nigra pars compacta (A8), the ventral tegmental area (A9) and the retrorubal field (A10) subgroups, are generated from floor plate progenitors, rostral to the isthmic boundary. Floor plate progenitors are specified to become mDA...

Stem cells are defined by their ability to self‑renew and to differentiate into specific specialized cell types. Pluripotent stem cells such as embryonic stem cells are capable of differentiating into all cell types of the three germ layers. Self‑renewal and differentiation potential are...