Breast cancer originates in undifferentiated terminal structures of the mammary gland. The terminal ducts of the Lob 1 of the human female breast, which are the sites of origin of ductal carcinomas, are at their peak of cell replication during early adulthood, a period during which the breast is...

Cancer is one of the leading causes of human death and belongs to the group of main chronic noncommunicable diseases (NCD). Certain specific features of NCD have raised the concept of ‘normal’ and ‘successful’ aging. The apparent paradox of simultaneous increase with aging of the diseases...

Progesterone receptors (PR) are useful prognostic indicators of breast cancers likely to respond to anti‑estrogen receptor (ER) therapies. However, the role of progesterone, therapeutic progestins, or unliganded or liganded PR in breast cancer development or progression remains...

In this chapter we review the epidemiology of hormone‑associated cancers (prostate, breast, endometrial, ovarian, pancreatic and thyroid) paying special attention to the variability in the age patterns of cancer incidence rate over populations and time periods. We emphasize the comparative...

The majority of breast cancers are estrogen receptor (ER) positive and depend on estrogen for growth. Therefore, blocking estrogen mediated actions remains the strategy of choice for the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. The selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) are molecules...

Cumulative and excessive exposure to estrogens is associated with increased breast cancer risk. The traditional mechanism explaining this association is that estrogens affect the rate of cell division and apoptosis and thus manifest their effect on the risk of breast cancer by affecting the...

The prevalence of overweight (body mass index, BMI, between 25 and 30 kg/m2) and obesity (BMI of 30 kg/m2 or higher) is increasing rapidly worldwide, especially in developing countries and countries undergoing economic transition to a market economy. One consequence of obesity is an increased...

Loss of normal growth control is a hallmark of cancer. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of tissue‑specific, normal growth regulation and the changes that occur during tumorigenesis may provide insights of both diagnostic and therapeutic importance. Control of cell proliferation in the...

Multiple lines of evidence support a central role of hormones in the etiology of breast, endometrial and ovarian cancers. Evidence of an association between circulating hormones and these cancers varies by both hormone and cancer site, with the most consistent associations observed for sex...

Serum and tissue biomarkers have begun to play an increasingly important role in the detection and management of many cancers of hormone‑sensitive tissues. Specifically, the introduction of serum PSA measurements into clinical practice has dramatically altered detection and treatment of...

Estrogen has been positively linked to the pathogenesis and growth of three common women’s cancers (breast, endometrium and ovary). A single gene encodes the key enzyme for estrogen biosynthesis named aromatase, inhibition of which effectively eliminates estrogen production in the entire body....

The development of breast cancer is dependant in part on oestrogen. Suppression of ovarian function or use of anti‑oestrogens will reduce the incidence of breast cancer. Many trials have now been done involving tens of thousands of healthy women evaluating the use of selective oestrogen...

Endometrial cancer is the most common malignant tumor of the female genital tract in the developed world. Increasing evidence suggests that the majority of cases can be divided into two different types of endometrial cancer based on clinico‑pathological and molecular characteristics. Type I...

The treatment of breast cancer with selective estrogen receptor modulators such as tamoxifen and with aromatase inhibitors represents a major advance in cancer chemotherapy. However, there are large variations among patients in both the therapeutic efficacy and side effects of these drugs....

Deprivation of estrogen causes breast tumors in women to adapt and develop enhanced sensitivity to this steroid. Accordingly, women relapsing after treatment with oophorectomy, which substantially lowers estradiol for a prolonged period, respond secondarily to aromatase inhibitors with tumor...