Vancomycin is a member of the glycopeptide class of antibiotics. Vancomycin resistance (van) gene clusters are found in human pathogens such as Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium and Staphylococcus aureus, glycopeptide‑producing actinomycetes such as Amycolotopsis orientalis,...

Two‑component systems (TCSs) are well conserved among E. coli strains, including pathogenic E. coli and also closely related Shigella spp. Although 25% of the genome of pathogenic E. coli is strain‑specific, only small number of strain‑specific TCSs is found. Regulation of...

The RegB‑RegA regulon from Rhodobacter capsulatus and Rhodobacter sphaeroides encodes proteins involved in numerous energy‑generating and energy‑utilizing processes such as photosynthesis, carbon fixation, nitrogen fixation, hydrogen utilization, aerobic and anaerobic...

In the genus Bordetella several important human and animal pathogens are classified with B. pertussis, the etiological agent of whooping cough, being medically the most relevant. In these bacteria expression of the most important virulence factors including several toxins, adhesins and...

Two‑component systems (TCSs) allow bacteria to monitor diverse environmental cues and to adjust gene expression accordingly at the transcriptional level. It has been recently recognized that prokaryotes also regulate many genes and operons at a posttranscriptional level with the...

Fruiting body development of Myxococcus xanthus is propelled by temporal gene expression directed via stage‑specific intercellular signaling pathways. M. xanthus exhibits social behaviors during its complex life cycle and is a potential source for production of natural products such as...

Two‑component system (TCS) consists of two multi‑domain proteins, a sensor histidine kinase (HK) and a response regulator (RR). In response to environmental change, the signal is transduced from HK to RR through phosphoryl transfer. At the first stage of structural biology of TCS,...

Recent work on the regulation of prokaryotic growth and development by two‑component systems (TCS) has revealed unsuspected levels of complexity. In the dimorphic freshwater bacterium Caulobacter crescentus, TCS provide stringent temporal and spatial control of cellular development and...

Bacteria have evolved complex stress responses that allow them to respond to their surroundings. In Gram negative bacteria, these stress responses can be compartmentalized into the cytoplasmic and extracytoplasmic (envelope) stress responses. The extracytoplasmic stress response monitors the...

The general stress sigma factor RpoS (σS) is induced during entry into stationary phase and in response to multiple stress conditions. RpoS is regulated at the levels of transcription, translation, proteolysis and protein activity. A key factor in RpoS control is the two‑component...

Two‑component systems (TCS) regulate pathogenic commitment in many interactions and provide an opportunity for unique therapeutic intervention. The VirA/VirG TCS of Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediates inter‑kingdom gene transfer in the development of host tumors and sets in motion the...

Streptococcus mutans is the primary causative agent involved in dental caries in humans. Among important virulence factors of this pathogen, its ability to form and sustain a polysaccharide‑encased biofilm (commonly called dental plaque) is vital not only to its survival and persistence in...

Transcriptional analysis using a DNA microarray is an extremely efficient method for analyzing two‑component signal transduction networks. Here we introduce three such networks in Escherichia coli that were clarified using a DNA microarray: a PhoQ/PhoP system that senses extracellular Mg2+...

A two‑component signal transduction system (TCS) is an attractive target for antibacterial agents. In this chapter, we review the TCS inhibitors developed during the past decade and introduce novel drug discovery systems to isolate the inhibitors of the YycG/YycF system, an essential TCS...

The PhoQ/PhoP two‑component regulatory system is a major regulator of virulence in the enteric pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. It also controls the adaptation to low Mg2+ environments by governing the expression and/or activity of Mg2+ transporters and of enzymes modifying...

In order to survive, bacteria have developed a variety of highly sophisticated and sensitive signal transduction pathways with which they adapt their genetic expression to meet the challenges of their ever‑changing surroundings. These mechanisms enable bacterial cells to communicate with...